Key glycolytic enzymes, such as ENO1, were significantly upregulated in IPF (P = 0.028), indicating enhanced glycolytic activity, while genes involved in oxidative metabolism, such as DLD and ADH1C, were markedly downregulated (P < 0.05), suggesting impaired energy homeostasis (Figure 1A; Supplementary Data 2). Here, DLD is linked to idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.