CSF2 and neoplasm: GM-CSF has been found to improve antigen presentation by stimulating the differentiation and activation of monocytes and DCs, while also mitigating the suppressive effects of Tregs that hinder antitumor immunity.43,44 Combining GM-CSF with ICB may favor T-cell-mediated antitumor responses.45 However, the effectiveness of GM-CSF relies on tumor-intrinsic or tumor-extrinsic factors in the TME to determine whether it fosters antitumor immunity or supports tumor growth.