TNF and Duchenne muscular dystrophy: IL-6 (Chahbouni et al., 2010; Messina et al., 2011; Rufo et al., 2011), CCL2 (De Paepe et al., 2012; Hathout et al., 2019; Ogundele et al., 2021; Pescatori et al., 2007), CXCL10 (Ogundele et al., 2021) and TNF-α (Abdel-Salam et al., 2009; Chahbouni et al., 2010; Comim et al., 2015; Messina et al., 2011; Tews and Goebel, 1996) are increased in both muscle and serum in patients with DMD.