INS and metabolic disease: T2DM is a progressive metabolic disorder that arises from compromised insulin responsiveness in specific target tissues, including the liver (Ling et al., 2020), skeletal muscle (Liu et al., 2014), and adipose tissue (Boengler et al., 2017), alongside inadequate insulin synthesis by pancreatic β-cells (L'Heveder and Nolan, 2013).