TNF and HIV infectious disease: We found that, compared to uninfected controls, HIV infection increased the expression of inflammatory cytokines IL-1β (0.13 ± 0.01 vs. 2.21 ± 0.6; p = 0.03), IL-18 (0.03 ± 0.01 vs. 0.23 ± 0.05; p = 0.03), and TNFα (0.001 ± 0.0002 vs. 0.04 ± 0.004; p = 0.03).