TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: Previous studies have described multiple effects of polysaccharides including enhancing macrophage mediation and immune action and promotion of inflammatory signaling, stimulation of T- and B-cell proliferation, and release of cytokines such as IL-2, INF-γ, IL-4, IL-10, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and TNF-α while inhibiting regulatory T-cell action, which may seem counterintuitive as a therapy for IBD [56].