TNF and Erythema: Moreover, in vitro studies have shown that capsaicin exposure triggers TRPV1-mediated Ca2+ influx in keratinocytes, leading to the release of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α, which are linked to erythema, capillary dilation, and pain (Lee et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2023; Xiao et al., 2023).