TGFB1 and neoplasm: CAFs also modulate the Wnt/β-catenin and TGF-β/SMAD pathways, influencing AKT and MAPK signaling through the secretion of VCAM1, thereby impacting tumor growth and invasion [41, 42].Under hypoxic conditions, CAFs regulate HIF-1α-dependent glycolytic signaling, affecting ovarian cancer cell invasion and migration by modulating CRMP2 [43].