TNF and endothelial dysfunction: Pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) (17), participate in almost all steps of atherosclerotic inflammation, including endothelial dysfunction in the early phase, aberrant macrophage activation in the middle phase, and formation and disruption of vulnerable plaque in the advanced phase (18).