TNF and atherosclerosis: For instance, preclinical evidence suggests that catestatin can prevent atherosclerosis by suppressing tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in endothelial cells, as well as by inhibiting inflammatory responses and oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced foam cell formation in human macrophages [32].