In contrast to the anti-carcinogenic effects of TCDD, particularly in the context of breast cancer, multiple epidemiological studies have identified the exposure to other environmentally relevant AHR ligands, i.e. airborne PAHs and PAH-rich particular matter, as a risk factor for breast cancer (Amadou et al., 2021[1]; Mordukhovich et al., 2016[64]; Shen et al., 2017[77]; Smotherman et al., 2023[79]). Here, AHR is linked to breast cancer.