These genes are pivotal in managing key cellular functions that frequently become disrupted in cancer, such as apoptosis (involving genes like CASP8 and DAPK),89, 90, 91, 92 cell cycle control (e.g., CDKN2A/p16 and PTEN),38, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98 DNA repair (MGMT, MLH1),99, 100 and pathways regulating signaling and cell adhesion (like APC and CDH1).101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107. Here, PTEN is linked to cancer.