The pathogenesis of PAH involves the imbalance between TGF-β signaling and BMP signaling [72].The hyperactivation of TGF-β signaling leads to the hyperproliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells, dysfunction of endothelial cells including apoptosis, proliferation, and senescence, and abnormal ECM deposition, etc. [73]. The gene discussed is TGFB1; the disease is pulmonary arterial hypertension.