However, TSG’s hepatotoxic effects are manifested through the inhibition of PPARGC1A and PPARγ expression, thereby activating the NF-κB and STAT signaling pathways, commonly dysregulated in liver diseases and potentially leading to LI (Kong et al., 2022; Meng et al., 2017; Zhang, 2017). Here, PPARGC1A is linked to liver disorder.