TNF and type 2 diabetes mellitus: Concurrently, elevated levels of inflammatory markers like tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in individuals with T2DM exacerbate IR and impair beta-cell function in the pancreas (Mukherjee et al., 2021; Park et al., 2021; Fagarasan et al., 2023; Habibi et al., 2024).