ESR1 and obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency: ESR1 is a regulator of blood glucose homeostasis, which can affect blood glucose homeostasis by regulating the estrogen level and plays an important role in pancreatic β-cell function and survival, participating in the pathological and physiological processes of obesity, insulin resistance, and diabetes (Gregorio et al., 2021; Xie et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2023).