FOXP3 and inflammatory bowel disease: Downregulation of the immune response occurs via mediators such as IL-10, transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), retinoic acid and expansion of forkhead box P3 (FOXP3+) regulatory T (Treg) cells.122 123 Aberration of any of these complex, interconnected innate and adaptive signalling pathways may contribute to the pathogenesis of IBD.