AHR and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease: Importantly, CYP1A1 is an estrogen-metabolizing enzyme, and increased activity of CYP1A1 leads to estrogen deficiency (Niwa et al., 2015), for example, Benzo[a]pyrene (Bap) promoted the transcription and overexpression of CYP1A1 by activating the AhR pathway, inhibiting estrogen’s protective effect on the liver, significantly increasing the risk of NAFLD (Mumtaz et al., 2022).