TNF and neoplasm: Recognized cancer-related mechanisms contributing to these complications include tumour cell-induced activation of coagulation pathways, a decrease in anticoagulant molecules, structural or functional changes in the vascular wall, endothelial damage, platelet activation, alterations in the fibrinolytic system, and the release of cytokines such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and interleukin-1β (13–18).