TNF and cancer: In contrast to M1-macrophages, producing proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-alpha - TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-12, and IL-23) reactive oxygen species and NO, medicating inflammatory reaction with activating tumor-killing mechanisms (Chen et al., 2023), M2-macrophages contribute to cell dedifferentiation, tumor growth promotion, angiogenesis and enhanced invasiveness of cancer cells (Liu et al., 2022).