This comparative analysis identified eight genes with differential methylation alterations shared across mouse AE-F1 sperm, human T2D islets, and pre-diagnostic T2D blood (e.g. PFKFB3, PHGDH, PLAGL1, SLC1A5, BSN, POR, DECR2, and COMMD7) (Fig. 6b‒d). Here, BSN is linked to type 2 diabetes mellitus.