Furthermore, the glial modulator and phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) inhibitor ibudilast ameliorates cocaine addiction in both humans and animals (Mu et al., 2021), and the colony stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) inhibitor PLX3397 also reduces cocaine-induced behavioural changes by depleting microglia (Linker et al., 2020). This evidence concerns the gene CSF1 and cocaine dependence.