NPS and bacterial urinary tract infection: Unravelling the precise mechanisms underlying the development of bladder afferent hypersensitivity during UTI remains challenging due to the dynamic biological response to UPEC infection that involves urothelial signalling, immune cell recruitment, and the release of various pro-inflammatory mediators including histamine, cytokines and chemokines, and neuropeptides (de Groat and Yoshimura, 2009; Grundy et al., 2020; Brierley et al., 2020).