TNF and colitis: PD mitigated the DSS-induced increases in pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β), alleviated colon length shortening, reduced morphological damage to the intestinal mucosa, and preserved tight junction proteins (TJ) occludin and Zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) in both caco-2 cells and murine models of colitis.