NPPB and atrial fibrillation: Moreover, this model was mainly based on and developed on preoperative clinical factors, but the multifactorial etiology of POAF may require implementation with preoperative AF-specific echocardiographic (such as atrial dimensions or diastolic dysfunction), biomarkers (like BNP, neutrophil–lymphocyte ratio, or genetic predisposition to excessive fibrosis), and hemodynamic data that, given the retrospective nature of the study, were not available.