TNF and atherosclerosis: Since impeding immune cell adhesion to endothelial cells is a characteristic of early atherosclerosis [28,29], it is possible that PA may be able to prevent the generation of atherosclerosis, at least in part, through inhibiting cytokine and chemokine production, reducing surface expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1, and lowering the number of monocytes on TNF-α-activated endothelial cells.