LIF and glioblastoma: Additional pathways supporting PMT of glioblastoma cells are induced by hypoxia [141,142], necrosis [143], 17β-estradiol [164], CXCL12 [165], C5a [148], bradykinin [147], and the interleukin (IL)-6 family cytokines, including IL-6 [166], leukemia-inhibitory factor (LIF) [167], and oncostatin M (OSM) [168] (Figure 3B).