Higher levels of SSA, C5a, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-10, and lower levels of TGF-β are usually found in preterm infants with NEC.45,46 In parallel, combined serum IL-6 and IL-8 levels have been indicated as more reliable indicators for NEC stages II/III; IL-8 could be used to predict surgical NEC; and serum C5a levels were more accurate than other markers in predicting mortality and the need for surgery upon NEC diagnosis.46–48 However, these markers lack specificity and can only partially distinguish NEC from other inflammatory diseases. This evidence concerns the gene TGFB1 and necrotizing enterocolitis.