TNF and diabetes mellitus: Partial or even complete loss of pancreatic β cells in DM appears to be significantly associated with increased levels of circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin 1β (IL-1β), which regulates and enhances various immune responses, tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), as well as free fatty acids, which disturb the homeostasis of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and lead to increased levels of stress.