CCL2 and atherosclerosis: The last factor leading to promoting atherosclerosis by MMP-2 is augmented pro-inflammatory signaling due to the release of ECM degradation products like TNF-α, interleukins, TGF-β, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) as well as MMP-9, which further degrades ECM components and amplifies inflammation, contributing to endothelial layer dysfunction [27].