Moreover, cannabinoid receptor-independent inhibition of VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 expression is not new and has previously been described in astrocytoma cells using the synthetic cannabinoid R(+)WIN 55.212-2, where inhibition of transactivation of NF-κB was shown to be the underlying mechanism [69]. Here, NFKB1 is linked to astrocytoma (excluding glioblastoma).