A study to repurpose empagliflozin as a treatment for CI conducted among 21 participants aged ≥ 55 years without diabetes detected that the levels of phosphorylated IGF-1 receptor, phosphorylated insulin receptor, phosphorylated-in-tyrosine insulin receptor substrate-1 and phosphorylated AKT increased in neuronal derived extracellular vesicles after the administration of empagliflozin, suggesting that SGLT2i might be put into use in related disease via activating the IGF-1 and insulin/IR/IRS-1/PI3K/AKT pathways [158]. Here, INSR is linked to diabetes mellitus.