TGFB1 and cancer: In this regard, TGF-β has a dual role in cancer according to the stage of tumor formation, as in the earlier pre-malignant stages it exhibits a suppressive role by including cell cycle arrest and apoptosis while at later stages of progression, tumor cells become resistant to it and paradoxically secreted TGF-β enhances immunosuppression and enhances tumor angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis [55,56,57].