NFE2L2 and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: In particular, astragalin has been reported to exhibit protective effects against respiratory diseases such as asthma, COPD, and acute lung injury (ALI) by modulating various signaling pathways, including the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), NF-κB, and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, thereby suppressing inflammation and oxidative stress [40].