TNF and Alzheimer disease: Additionally, AChE enzyme activity and various biomarker levels were measured in the rat hippocampus, including neurotransmitters (ACh, noradrenaline (NA), and dopamine (DA)), anti-oxidant parameters (glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA), anti-inflammatory parameters (tissue necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β)), and an AD marker, Aβ protein.