CCL2 and atherosclerosis: Risk factors for atherosclerosis, including hypertension and hyperglycemia, stimulate endothelial cells (42), activating the IκB kinase (IKK) complex, resulting in the phosphorylation and degradation of IκB, thereby releasing Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) into the nucleus,subsequently triggering the expression of pro-inflammatory molecules such as ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and MCP-1, which exacerbates endothelial cell injury (43, 44).