TNF and viral infectious disease: For instance, exposure to cytokine TNFα, challenge with LPS or viral infection leads to a rapid increase in mRNA levels of TNF, chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand CXCL1, CXCL2, CCL20, IL-6 and IL-1β within 30 min in human HEK293 cells, mouse MLE-12 cells, and mouse lungs [12, 73, 94–96].