TNF and metabolic syndrome: These macrophages release pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), which propagate systemic inflammation and aggravate IR, a hallmark feature of MetS (Man et al. 2022; Strizova et al. 2023; Villarroya et al. 2018).