SPP1 and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: To investigate whether SPP1 + Mac-derived TNF-α and IL-1β promote HNSCC cell proliferation, the tumor cells were treated with macrophage supernatant added TNF-α and IL-1β, or VGX-1027 [19, 20], which targets macrophages and reduces the production of TNF-α and IL-1β so as to mimic and compare the effects on tumor cells caused by macrophages.