SMAD2 and cancer: Glabridin blocks the TGF-β/SMAD2 pathway by upregulating miR-148a, reducing the proliferation and transformation traits of cancer stem cells (CSCs). It increases epithelial markers like E-cadherin and ZO-1, inhibits EMT, and weakens cell migration and invasion. Additionally, it reduces CSC markers like CD44 and ALDH-1, inhibiting tumor self-renewal, sphere formation, and anchorage-independent growth.