TNF and colitis: TNF-α, IL-1b, and IL-6 have been shown to promote colonic inflammation (Younghoon et al., 2015; Marafini et al., 2019), with TNF-α causing damage to the intestinal mechanical barrier (Horiuchi et al., 2010), and IL-10 and IL-12, which are anti-inflammatory cytokines (Desbonnet et al., 2014; Lobionda et al., 2019), which can inhibit inflammation.