LEP and immune system disorder: These include the overactivation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and the sympathetic nervous system, the overstimulation of pro-inflammatory adipokines–such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), leptin, and plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 –, insulin resistance, immune dysfunction, and structural and functional alterations in renal, cardiac, and adipose tissues (Kotsis et al., 2010; Shams et al., 2022).