TNF and bronchopulmonary dysplasia: Early-stage BPD is characterized by an inflammatory response and cytokine dysregulation (Leroy et al. 2018), marked by elevated proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α, alongside reduced levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10 (Holzfurtner et al. 2022).