TNF and neoplasm: DC, as antigen-presenting cells, activate the immune response of T cells by phagocytosing and processing tumor-associated antigens and presenting them to T cells, and also enhance the activation and proliferation of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells by secreting pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-12 and TNF-α, which promote tumor-specific immune responses NK cells have a direct killing effect on tumor cells (Yin et al., 2021).