Patients with PAH exhibit elevated serum levels of various inflammatory markers linked to disease severity and patient survival, including IL-1b, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, IL-18, TNF, CRP, and MCP-1 [105–109]; 2-ME2 has demonstrated protective effects against inflammation-related diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis [74, 75]. Here, TNF is linked to pulmonary arterial hypertension.