The macroscopic and microscopic features of colonic and cecal inflammation were accompanied by the release of high levels of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, IFN-γ, and CXCL10 in the supernatants of the tissue homogenates at different time points with maximum levels recorded after 48 h of infection (Fig. 5A through D). Here, TNF is linked to infection.