NFKB1 and leukemia: Indoxyl sulfate was also shown to induce mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor-κβ (NF-κβ) pathways in cardiac cells and stimulate pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNA expression in human leukemia monocytic (THP-1) cells via the MAPK and NF-κβ pathways [23].