MAPK3 and neoplasm: Copper can directly interact with MAPK 1/2 (MEK1/2) and ULK1/2 kinases and regulate their activity [6, 95], thereby promoting the phosphorylation of ATG13 and ERK1/2, triggering activation of the downstream c‐Jun N‐terminal kinase (JNK) pathway, leading to the formation of autophagy complexes, and ultimately promoting tumor growth [89, 96].