TNF and Duchenne muscular dystrophy: Elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2), and CXC motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10) have been reported in DMD animal models and patients, which may contribute to bone loss in DMD (summarized in Table 1) (59, 61, 62).