INS and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease: Lactococcus and Leuconostoc, commonly found in foods, can mitigate NAFLD through mechanisms such as modulating the gut microbiota, reducing LPS levels, producing SCFAs, regulating lipid metabolism, and alleviating inflammatory responses, ultimately aiding in weight reduction, decreasing liver fat content, and improving insulin resistance (Castro-Rodríguez et al., 2020; Naudin et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2020; Mendes et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2024).